A Course in Phonetics Sixth Edition 2011 Peter Ladefoged, Keith Johnson.pdf
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1、THE INTERNATIONAL PHONETIC ALPHABET(revised to 2005)CONSONANTS(PULMONIC)2005 IPA Bilabial Labiodental Dental Alveolar Post alveolar Retroflex Palatal Velar Uvular Pharyngeal Glottal Plosive p b t d c k g q G/Nasal m M n =N Trill r R Tap or Flap|Fricative F B f v T D s z S Z C J x V X?h H Lateral fri
2、cative LApproximant j Lateralapproximant l Where symbols appear in pairs,the one to the right represents a voiced consonant.Shaded areas denote articulations judged impossible.CONSONANTS(NON-PULMONIC)Clicks Voiced implosives Ejectives Bilabial Bilabial Examples:Dental Dental/alveolar p Bilabial .In
3、the production of click sounds,there is a velar closure,and the body of air involved is in front of this closure(that is,in the front of the mouth).Con-sequently,it is possible to produce a velar sound with a glottalic or pulmonic airstream mechanism while a click is being made.You can demonstrate t
4、his for yourself by humming continuously while producing clicks.The hum-ming corresponds to a long N,a voiced velar nasal.We may symbolize the co-occurrence of a nasal and a click by writing a tie bar over the two symbols.Thus,a dental click and a velar nasal would be written N .In tran-scribing cli
5、ck languages,the tie bar is usually left off,and simultaneity is assumed.Even if the soft palate is raised so that air cannot flow through the nose,the pulmonic airstream mechanism can still be used to keep the vocal folds vibrat-ing for a short time during a click.When the back of the tongue is rai
6、sed for a click and there is also a velic closure,the articulators are in the position for g.A voiced dental click of this kind is therefore a combination of g and and may be symbolized g (omitting the tie bar).At this point,we should note that,strictly speaking,the transcription of clicks always re
7、quires a symbol for both the click itself and for the activity associated with the velar closure.We transcribed the voiced click with a g plus the click 31269_06_Ch06_pp135-162 pp2.indd 14531269_06_Ch06_pp135-162 pp2.indd 14511/5/09 7:00:21 PM11/5/09 7:00:21 PMCopyright 2010 Cengage Learning,Inc.All
8、 Rights Reserved.May not be copied,scanned,or duplicated,in whole or in part.146 CHAPTER 6 Airstream Mechanisms and Phonation Types symbol,and the nasalized click with N plus the click symbol.We should also transcribe the voiceless click with k plus the click symbol.It is perhaps not necessary for a
9、 beginning student in phonetics to be able to produce all sorts of different clicks in regular words.But you should be able to produce at least a simple click followed by a vowel.Try saying k followed by A.Make a vowel as soon after the click as possible,so that it sounds like a single syllable k A
10、(using the convention that regards the k and the click as simultaneous,as if there were a tie bar).As a more challenging exercise,learn to produce clicks between vowels.Start by repeating k A a number of times,so that you are saying k Ak Ak A.Now say dental,post-alveolar,and lateral clicks in sequen
11、ces such as Ak A,Ak!A,Ak A.Make sure there are no pauses between the vowels and the clicks.Now try to keep the voicing going throughout the sequences,so that you produce Ag A,Ag!A,Ag A.Last,produce nasalized clicks,perhaps with nasalized vowels on either side AN A,ANA,AN A (again with the nasal bein
12、g simultaneous with the click).Repeat with other vowels.The spelling system regularly used in books and newspapers in Zulu and Xhosa employs the letters c,q,x for the dental,post-alveolar,and lateral clicks for which we have been using the symbols ,respectively.The name of the language Xhosa should
13、therefore be pronounced with a lateral click at the begin-ning.The h following the orthographic X indicates a short burst of aspiration following the click.Try saying the name of the language with an aspirated lat-eral click at the beginning.Table 6.3 shows a set of contrasting clicks in Xhosa.Nearl
14、y all the words in this table are infinitive forms of words,which is why they begin with the prefix uku!.TABLE 6.3 Contrasts involving clicks in Xhosa.The rows differ in phonation types,as will be discussed later in this chapter.Dental Post-alveolar Alveolar LateralVoiceless uku!k ola uku!koa u!k ol
15、ounaspirated to grind fine to break peacevelar plosive stonesVoiceless u!kuk o!la uku!kola uku!k oaaspirated to pick up perfume to arm oneselfvelar plosiveMurmured u!kug o$a uku!goba uku!g obavelar plosive to be joyful to scoop to stir up mudVoiced uku!Noma uku!Nola uku!N iavelar nasal to admire to
16、climb up to put on clothesMurmured uku!Nola uku!Nala uku!N oN avelar nasal to be dirty to go straight to lie on back,knees upCD 6.431269_06_Ch06_pp135-162 pp2.indd 14631269_06_Ch06_pp135-162 pp2.indd 14611/5/09 7:00:21 PM11/5/09 7:00:21 PMCopyright 2010 Cengage Learning,Inc.All Rights Reserved.May n
17、ot be copied,scanned,or duplicated,in whole or in part.Airstream Mechanisms 147The CD also illustrates clicks in Zulu,a language closely related to Xhosa,and in Nama and X!,two Khoisan languages spoken in Namibia and Botswana.You can find examples of these languages by going to the index of language
18、s,the index of sounds,or the map index,all of which are accessible from the foot of the title page.They are also listed on the contents page for this chapter.Table 6.4 summarizes the principal airstream mechanisms.Note that pulmonic sounds can be voiced or voiceless.Glottalic egressive soundsejectiv
19、esare always voiceless.Glottalic ingressive soundsimplosivesare nearly always voiced by being combined with a pulmonic egressive airstream,but voiceless glottalic ingressive sounds(voiceless implosives)have been reported in a few languages,such as the Owerri dialect of Igbo,spoken in Nigeria.(Igbo e
20、xam-ples are among the extra material on the CD,accessible through the index of languages.)Velaric ingressive sounds(clicks)may be combined with pulmonic egressive sounds so that the resulting combination can be voiced or voiceless.These combinations can also be oral or nasal.TABLE 6.4 The principal
21、 airstream processes.Specific Name Brief for Stop Airstream Direction Description Consonant Examples Vocal FoldsPulmonic egressive lung air pushed plosive p t k voiceless or out under the b d g voiced control of the respiratory musclesGlottalic egressive pharynx air ejective p t k voiceless compress
22、ed by the upward movement of the closed glottisGlottalic ingressive downward implosive usually movement of voiced by the vibrating the pulmonic glottis;pulmonic airstream egressive airstream may also be involved Velaric ingressive mouth air click combine rarefied by the with the backward and pulmoni
23、c downward airstream movement of for voiced the tongue or voiceless velar nasalsCD 6.5CD 6.6CD 6.731269_06_Ch06_pp135-162 pp2.indd 14731269_06_Ch06_pp135-162 pp2.indd 14711/5/09 7:00:21 PM11/5/09 7:00:21 PMCopyright 2010 Cengage Learning,Inc.All Rights Reserved.May not be copied,scanned,or duplicate
24、d,in whole or in part.148 CHAPTER 6 Airstream Mechanisms and Phonation Types STATES OF THE GLOTTISSo far,we have been considering sounds to be either voiceless,with the vocal folds apart,or voiced,with the folds nearly together so that they will vibrate when air passes between them.But in fact,the g
25、lottis(which is defined as the space between the vocal folds)can assume a number of other shapes.Some of these glottal states are important in the description of other languages,and in the description of pathological voices.Photographs of four states of the glottis are shown in Figure 6.6.These pho-
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