A Course in Phonetics Sixth Edition 2011 Peter Ladefoged, Keith Johnson.pdf

1、THE INTERNATIONAL PHONETIC ALPHABET(revised to 2005)CONSONANTS(PULMONIC)2005 IPA Bilabial Labiodental Dental Alveolar Post alveolar Retroflex Palatal Velar Uvular Pharyngeal Glottal Plosive p b t d c k g q G/Nasal m M n =N Trill r R Tap or Flap|Fricative F B f v T D s z S Z C J x V X?h H Lateral fri

2、cative LApproximant j Lateralapproximant l Where symbols appear in pairs,the one to the right represents a voiced consonant.Shaded areas denote articulations judged impossible.CONSONANTS(NON-PULMONIC)Clicks Voiced implosives Ejectives Bilabial Bilabial Examples:Dental Dental/alveolar p Bilabial .In

3、the production of click sounds,there is a velar closure,and the body of air involved is in front of this closure(that is,in the front of the mouth).Con-sequently,it is possible to produce a velar sound with a glottalic or pulmonic airstream mechanism while a click is being made.You can demonstrate t

4、his for yourself by humming continuously while producing clicks.The hum-ming corresponds to a long N,a voiced velar nasal.We may symbolize the co-occurrence of a nasal and a click by writing a tie bar over the two symbols.Thus,a dental click and a velar nasal would be written N .In tran-scribing cli

5、ck languages,the tie bar is usually left off,and simultaneity is assumed.Even if the soft palate is raised so that air cannot flow through the nose,the pulmonic airstream mechanism can still be used to keep the vocal folds vibrat-ing for a short time during a click.When the back of the tongue is rai

6、sed for a click and there is also a velic closure,the articulators are in the position for g.A voiced dental click of this kind is therefore a combination of g and and may be symbolized g (omitting the tie bar).At this point,we should note that,strictly speaking,the transcription of clicks always re

7、quires a symbol for both the click itself and for the activity associated with the velar closure.We transcribed the voiced click with a g plus the click 31269_06_Ch06_pp135-162 pp2.indd 14531269_06_Ch06_pp135-162 pp2.indd 14511/5/09 7:00:21 PM11/5/09 7:00:21 PMCopyright 2010 Cengage Learning,Inc.All

8、 Rights Reserved.May not be copied,scanned,or duplicated,in whole or in part.146 CHAPTER 6 Airstream Mechanisms and Phonation Types symbol,and the nasalized click with N plus the click symbol.We should also transcribe the voiceless click with k plus the click symbol.It is perhaps not necessary for a

9、 beginning student in phonetics to be able to produce all sorts of different clicks in regular words.But you should be able to produce at least a simple click followed by a vowel.Try saying k followed by A.Make a vowel as soon after the click as possible,so that it sounds like a single syllable k A

10、(using the convention that regards the k and the click as simultaneous,as if there were a tie bar).As a more challenging exercise,learn to produce clicks between vowels.Start by repeating k A a number of times,so that you are saying k Ak Ak A.Now say dental,post-alveolar,and lateral clicks in sequen

11、ces such as Ak A,Ak!A,Ak A.Make sure there are no pauses between the vowels and the clicks.Now try to keep the voicing going throughout the sequences,so that you produce Ag A,Ag!A,Ag A.Last,produce nasalized clicks,perhaps with nasalized vowels on either side AN A,ANA,AN A (again with the nasal bein

12、g simultaneous with the click).Repeat with other vowels.The spelling system regularly used in books and newspapers in Zulu and Xhosa employs the letters c,q,x for the dental,post-alveolar,and lateral clicks for which we have been using the symbols ,respectively.The name of the language Xhosa should

13、therefore be pronounced with a lateral click at the begin-ning.The h following the orthographic X indicates a short burst of aspiration following the click.Try saying the name of the language with an aspirated lat-eral click at the beginning.Table 6.3 shows a set of contrasting clicks in Xhosa.Nearl

14、y all the words in this table are infinitive forms of words,which is why they begin with the prefix uku!.TABLE 6.3 Contrasts involving clicks in Xhosa.The rows differ in phonation types,as will be discussed later in this chapter.Dental Post-alveolar Alveolar LateralVoiceless uku!k ola uku!koa u!k ol

15、ounaspirated to grind fine to break peacevelar plosive stonesVoiceless u!kuk o!la uku!kola uku!k oaaspirated to pick up perfume to arm oneselfvelar plosiveMurmured u!kug o$a uku!goba uku!g obavelar plosive to be joyful to scoop to stir up mudVoiced uku!Noma uku!Nola uku!N iavelar nasal to admire to

16、climb up to put on clothesMurmured uku!Nola uku!Nala uku!N oN avelar nasal to be dirty to go straight to lie on back,knees upCD 6.431269_06_Ch06_pp135-162 pp2.indd 14631269_06_Ch06_pp135-162 pp2.indd 14611/5/09 7:00:21 PM11/5/09 7:00:21 PMCopyright 2010 Cengage Learning,Inc.All Rights Reserved.May n

17、ot be copied,scanned,or duplicated,in whole or in part.Airstream Mechanisms 147The CD also illustrates clicks in Zulu,a language closely related to Xhosa,and in Nama and X!,two Khoisan languages spoken in Namibia and Botswana.You can find examples of these languages by going to the index of language

18、s,the index of sounds,or the map index,all of which are accessible from the foot of the title page.They are also listed on the contents page for this chapter.Table 6.4 summarizes the principal airstream mechanisms.Note that pulmonic sounds can be voiced or voiceless.Glottalic egressive soundsejectiv

19、esare always voiceless.Glottalic ingressive soundsimplosivesare nearly always voiced by being combined with a pulmonic egressive airstream,but voiceless glottalic ingressive sounds(voiceless implosives)have been reported in a few languages,such as the Owerri dialect of Igbo,spoken in Nigeria.(Igbo e

20、xam-ples are among the extra material on the CD,accessible through the index of languages.)Velaric ingressive sounds(clicks)may be combined with pulmonic egressive sounds so that the resulting combination can be voiced or voiceless.These combinations can also be oral or nasal.TABLE 6.4 The principal

21、 airstream processes.Specific Name Brief for Stop Airstream Direction Description Consonant Examples Vocal FoldsPulmonic egressive lung air pushed plosive p t k voiceless or out under the b d g voiced control of the respiratory musclesGlottalic egressive pharynx air ejective p t k voiceless compress

22、ed by the upward movement of the closed glottisGlottalic ingressive downward implosive usually movement of voiced by the vibrating the pulmonic glottis;pulmonic airstream egressive airstream may also be involved Velaric ingressive mouth air click combine rarefied by the with the backward and pulmoni

23、c downward airstream movement of for voiced the tongue or voiceless velar nasalsCD 6.5CD 6.6CD 6.731269_06_Ch06_pp135-162 pp2.indd 14731269_06_Ch06_pp135-162 pp2.indd 14711/5/09 7:00:21 PM11/5/09 7:00:21 PMCopyright 2010 Cengage Learning,Inc.All Rights Reserved.May not be copied,scanned,or duplicate

24、d,in whole or in part.148 CHAPTER 6 Airstream Mechanisms and Phonation Types STATES OF THE GLOTTISSo far,we have been considering sounds to be either voiceless,with the vocal folds apart,or voiced,with the folds nearly together so that they will vibrate when air passes between them.But in fact,the g

25、lottis(which is defined as the space between the vocal folds)can assume a number of other shapes.Some of these glottal states are important in the description of other languages,and in the description of pathological voices.Photographs of four states of the glottis are shown in Figure 6.6.These pho-

26、tographs were taken by placing a small mirror at the back of the mouth so that it was possible to look straight down the pharynx toward the larynx.The top of the picture is toward the front of the neck,the lower part toward the back.The vocal folds are the white bands running vertically in each pict

27、ure.Their position can be adjusted by the movements of the arytenoid cartilages,which are under-neath the small protuberances visible in the lower part of the pictures.Figure 6.6 Four states of the glottis.Photographs by John Ohala and Ralph Vanderslice.31269_06_Ch06_pp135-162 pp2.indd 14831269_06_C

28、h06_pp135-162 pp2.indd 14811/5/09 7:00:22 PM11/5/09 7:00:22 PMCopyright 2010 Cengage Learning,Inc.All Rights Reserved.May not be copied,scanned,or duplicated,in whole or in part.States of the Glottis 149In a voiced sound,the vocal folds are close together and vibrating,as in the first photograph.In

29、a voiceless sound,as in the second photograph,they are pulled apart.This position will produce a completely voiceless sound if there is little or no airflow through the glottis,as in the case of a voiceless fricative or an unaspirated stop.But if there is considerable airflow,as,in an h-like sound,t

30、he vocal folds will be set vibrating while remaining apart.In this way,they produce what is called breathy voice,or murmur.The second photograph is labeled“voiceless”because this is the usual position in voiceless fricatives.But in an intervocalic h as in ahead,the vocal folds are in a very similar

31、position.In these circumstances,they will produce breathy voice,vibrating loosely,so they appear to be simply flapping in the airstream.The third photograph shows another kind of breathy voice.In this sound,the vocal folds are apart between the arytenoid cartilages in the lower(posterior)part of the

32、 photograph.They can still vibrate,but at the same time,a great deal of air passes out through the glottis.Murmured sounds occur in English in the pronunciation of/h/in between vowels as in ahead and behind.In most of the speakers of English we have been able to observe,the/h/in these words is made

33、with the vocal folds slightly apart along their entire length,but still continuing to vibrate as if they were waving in the breeze.The term“voiced h”is sometimes used for this sound,but it is somewhat confusing as there is certainly no voicing in the usual sense.The term“murmured h”is preferable.The

34、 symbol for this sound is H.Learn to distinguish between the murmured sound H as in aha and the voiceless sound h as at the beginning of an English word such as heart.The murmured sound is like a sigh produced while breathing heavily.Take a deep breath and see how long you can make first H and then

35、h.In the voice-less sound h,the air from the lungs escapes very rapidly,so that this sound cannot be prolonged to any great extent.But you can make the murmured sound H last much longer,as the flow of air from the lungs is slowed down by the vibrating vocal folds.Note that H can be said on a range o

36、f different pitches.Now say H before a vowel.When you say HA,you will probably find that the breathiness extends into the vowel.But try to make only the first part of the syllable breathy and produce regular voicing at the end.Finally,try to produce the sequence HA after a stop consonant.Murmured st

37、ops of this kind occur in Hindi and in many other languages spoken in India.These sounds will be discussed more fully in the next section.But we can note here that in murmured stops,the murmur occurs only during the release of the stop.There must be a comparatively high rate of flow of air out of th

38、e lungs to produce murmur,and this cannot happen during the stop closure.It is fairly easy to produce the required flow rate for murmur during a vowel.Some languages contrast plain and murmured vowels.Table 6.5 shows a set of words in Gujarati,another language spoken in India.Murmured sounds are in-

39、dicated by placing two dots below the symbol.In Gujarati,the contrast between 31269_06_Ch06_pp135-162 pp2.indd 14931269_06_Ch06_pp135-162 pp2.indd 14911/5/09 7:00:22 PM11/5/09 7:00:22 PMCopyright 2010 Cengage Learning,Inc.All Rights Reserved.May not be copied,scanned,or duplicated,in whole or in par

40、t.150 CHAPTER 6 Airstream Mechanisms and Phonation Types murmured or breathy voiced sounds and regular,modal voice can occur in both consonants and vowels.In the first row,you can hear a three-way contrast be-tween a murmured vowel,a murmured release of a stop,and a word that has only modal voice.In

41、 creaky voice,which is the other state of the glottis illustrated in Figure 6.6,the arytenoid cartilages are tightly together,so that the vocal folds can vibrate only at the anterior end(the small opening at the top of the photograph).Note that the vocal folds appear to be much shorter in this photo

42、graph.This is partly because the posterior portion at the bottom of the photograph is not visible when the arytenoid cartilages are pulled together.But it is also the case that in creaky voice,the folds are not stretched from front to back as they are on higher pitches.It is not possible to make acc

43、urate measurements of the lengths of the vibrating folds in these photographs,as the glottis is at varying distances from the camera,but this probably accounts for only a small proportion of the variation in length apparent in the photographs.Creaky voice is a very low-pitched sound that occurs at t

44、he ends of falling intonations for some speakers of English.You can probably learn to produce it by singing the lowest note that you canand then trying to go even lower.Creaky-voiced sounds may also be called laryngealized.In some languages,laryngealization is used to distinguish one sound from anot

45、her.Hausa and many other Chadic languages of northern Nigeria distin-guish between two palatal approximants.One has regular voicing,rather like the English sound at the beginning of yacht,and the other has creaky voice.The IPA diacritic to indicate creaky voice is 0 placed under the symbol.Hausa ort

46、hog-raphy uses an apostrophe()before the symbol for the corresponding voiced sound,thus contrasting y and y.The Hausa letters y and y correspond to IPA j and oj0.Try differentiating between the laryngealized and nonlaryngealized sounds in the Hausa words ja ya(he)and oj0a ya(daughter),which are incl

47、uded on the CD with the other Hausa words discussed earlier in this chapter.A slightly more common use of laryngealization is to distinguish one stop from another.Hausa and many other West African languages have voiced stops b,d contrasting with laryngealized stops b0,d0,which are sometimes implosiv

48、es.In these sounds,the creaky voice is most evident not during the stop closure itself but during the first part of the following vowel.Similar sounds occur in some Native American languages.TABLE 6.5 Murmured vowels in Gujarati.Breathy Plainba r outside bHar burden bar twelvem”l palace m”l dirtCD 6

49、.1CD 6.831269_06_Ch06_pp135-162 pp2.indd 15031269_06_Ch06_pp135-162 pp2.indd 15011/5/09 7:00:22 PM11/5/09 7:00:22 PMCopyright 2010 Cengage Learning,Inc.All Rights Reserved.May not be copied,scanned,or duplicated,in whole or in part.Voice Onset Time 151VOICE ONSET TIMEWe saw earlier that the terms vo

50、iced and voiceless refer to the state of the glottis during a given articulation.We also saw that the terms aspirated and unaspirated refer to the presence or absence of a period of voicelessness during and after the release of an articulation.The interval between the release of a closure and the st