GroundPenetratingRadar-TheoryandApplications(0).PDF

1、GROUNDPENETRATINGRADARTHEORY ANDAPPLICATIONSThis page intentionally left blank GROUNDPENETRATINGRADARTHEORY ANDAPPLICATIONSEdited byHARRY M.JOLAmsterdam Boston Heidelberg London New York OxfordParis San Diego San Francisco Singapore Sydney TokyoElsevier ScienceRadarweg 29,PO Box 211,1000 AE Amsterda

2、m,The NetherlandsThe Boulevard,Langford Lane,Kidlington,Oxford OX5 1GB,UKFirst edition 2009Copyright?2009 Elsevier B.V.All rights reservedNo part of this publication may be reproduced,stored in a retrieval system,ortransmitted in any form or by any means,electronic,mechanical,photocopying,recording,

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4、e at http:/ selectingObtaining permission to use Elsevier materialNoticeNo responsibility is assumed by the publisher for any injury and/or damage to personsor property as a matter of products liability,negligence or otherwise,or from any useor operation of any methods,products,instructions or ideas

5、 contained in the materialherein.Because of rapid advances in the medical sciences,in particular,independentverification of diagnoses and drug dosages should be madeBritish Library Cataloguing-in-Publication DataA catalogue record for this book is available from the British LibraryLibrary of Congres

6、s Cataloging-in-Publication DataA catalog record for this book is available from the Library of CongressISBN:978-0-444-53348-7For information on all Elsevier publicationsvisit our website at Printed in Slovenia08 09 10 1110 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1Working together to grow libraries in developing |www.booka

7、id.org|www.sabre.orgCONTENTSPrefacexiiiContributorsxvPart IGround Penetrating Radar(GPR)Principles11Electromagnetic Principles of Ground Penetrating Radar3A.P.Annan1.1Introduction41.2Ground Penetrating Radar Basic Principles51.2.1Overview51.2.2Maxwells equations61.2.3Constitutive equations61.2.4Mate

8、rial properties71.3Wave Nature of Electromagnetic Fields81.3.1Wave properties101.3.2Ground penetrating radar source near an interface111.3.3Reflection,refraction,and transmission at interfaces131.3.4Resolution and zone of influence141.3.5Scattering attenuation161.4Signal Measurement171.4.1Time range

9、s and bandwidth181.4.2Center frequency191.4.3Ground penetrating radar signal acquisition201.4.4Characterizing system response201.4.5Recording dynamic range221.4.6Antennas231.4.7Antenna directivity241.4.8Antenna shielding271.5Survey Methodology291.5.1Sampling criteria291.5.2Ground penetrating radar s

10、urveys301.5.3Common-offset reflection survey301.5.4Multioffset common midpoint/wide-angle reflectionand refraction velocity sounding design311.5.5Transillumination surveys311.6Data Analysis and Interpretation331.6.1Dewow341.6.2Time gain341.6.3Deconvolution351.6.4Migration36v1.6.5Topographic correcti

11、on361.6.6Two-dimensional and three-dimensional data visualization371.7Summary372Electrical and Magnetic Properties of Rocks,Soils and Fluids41Nigel J.Cassidy2.1Introduction412.2Electromagnetic Material Properties:Basic Theory432.3Permittivity and Conductivity The Electrical Parameters of Dielectrics

12、442.3.1Permittivity 452.3.2Conductivity?542.3.3Permeability?the magnetic parameters of dielectrics552.4Material Properties Relationship to Electromagnetic Wave Characteristics572.4.1Loss factor and skin depth592.5The Properties of Real Materials Practical Evaluations602.6Characterising the Response

13、of Real Materials622.6.1Basic mixing models632.6.2Volumetric and inclusion-based mixing models642.7Summary66Acknowledgements673Ground Penetrating Radar Systems and Design73Steven Koppenjan3.1Introduction and Background733.2Methodology Types of Ground Penetrating Radar743.2.1Impulse753.2.2Swept frequ

14、ency-modulated continuous wave753.2.3Stepped frequency-modulated continuous wave763.2.4Gated,stepped frequency-modulated continuous wave763.3Radio Frequency Specifications and Definitions773.3.1Dynamic range773.3.2Bandwidth783.3.3Range resolution783.3.4Lateral resolution793.3.5Unambiguous range793.4

15、General Design Criteria for Ground Penetrating Radar803.4.1System performance813.5Impulse Ground Penetrating Radar813.5.1Theory of operation:Impulse radar813.5.2System design parameters:impulse radar843.5.3Implementation of an impulse ground penetrating radar853.6Continuous-Wave Ground Penetrating R

16、adar863.6.1Theory of operation stepped-frequency,continuous-wave radar863.6.2System design parameters:stepped-frequency radar923.6.3Implementation of a gated,stepped-frequency,ground penetratingradar93viContents4Antennas99David J.Daniels4.1Introduction994.2Basic Antenna Parameters1024.2.1Energy tran

17、sfer from antennas1024.2.2Gain1044.2.3Directivity1054.2.4Coupling energy into the ground1054.2.5Antenna efficiency1064.2.6Sidelobes and back lobes1064.2.7Bandwidth1064.2.8Polarisation linear,elliptical,circular1074.2.9Antenna phase centre1084.2.10Antenna patterns1084.2.11Time sidelobes and ring-down

18、1094.2.12Antenna footprint1104.3Antennas for Ground Penetrating Radar1124.3.1Introduction1124.3.2Coupling into a dielectric1134.3.3Time domain antennas1154.3.4Frequency domain antennas1244.3.5Array antennas1284.4Summary1334.5Definitions1335Ground Penetrating Radar Data Processing,Modelling and Analy

19、sis141Nigel J.Cassidy5.1Introduction1415.2Background and Practical Principles of Ground Penetrating RadarData Processing1435.3Ground Penetrating Radar Data Processing:Developing Good Practice1455.4Basic Ground Penetrating Radar Data Processing Steps1485.4.1Data/trace editing and rubber-band interpol

20、ation1485.4.2Dewow filtering1505.4.3Time-zero correction1505.4.4Filtering1525.4.5Deconvolution1585.4.6Velocity analysis and depth conversion1585.4.7Elevation or topographic corrections1595.4.8Gain functions1615.4.9Migration1645.4.10Advanced imaging and analysis tools1665.4.11Attribute analysis1675.4

21、.12Numerical modelling1685.5Processing,Imaging and Visualisation:Concluding Remarks171Acknowledgements172ContentsviiPart IIEnvironmental Applications1776Soils,Peatlands,and Biomonitoring179James A.Doolittle and John R.Butnor6.1Introduction1796.2Soils1806.2.1Soil properties that affect the performanc

22、eof ground penetrating radar1806.2.2Soil suitability maps for ground penetrating radar1816.2.3Ground penetrating data and soil surveys1856.2.4Uses of ground penetrating radar in organic soils and peatlands1906.3Biomonitoring1927The Contribution of Ground Penetrating Radar to WaterResource Research20

23、3Lee Slater and Xavier Comas7.1Introduction2037.2Petrophysics2067.3Hydrostratigraphic Characterization2097.4Distribution/Zonation of Flow and Transport Parameters2147.5Moisture Content Estimation2177.6Monitoring Dynamic Hydrological Processes2247.6.1Recharge/moisture content in the vadose zone2257.6

24、.2Water table detection/monitoring2287.6.3Solute transport in fractures2297.6.4Studies of the hyporheic corridor2317.6.5Studies of the rhizosphere2327.6.6Carbon gas emissions from soils2327.7Conclusions2378Contaminant Mapping247J.D.Redman8.1Introduction2478.2Contaminant Types2488.3Electrical Propert

25、ies of Contaminated Rock and Soil2498.3.1Electrical properties of NAPLs2498.3.2Electrical properties of soil and rock with NAPL contamination2508.3.3Biodegradation effects2538.3.4Inorganics2538.4Typical Distribution of Contaminants2548.4.1DNAPL2548.4.2LNAPL2558.4.3Inorganics2558.4.4Saturated and uns

26、aturated zone2568.5GPR Methodology256viiiContents8.6Data Processing and Interpretation2578.6.1Visualization2578.6.2Trace attributes2578.6.3Data differencing2578.6.4AVO analysis2588.6.5Detection based on frequency-dependent properties2588.6.6Quantitative estimates of NAPL2588.7Case Studies2598.7.1Con

27、trolled DNAPL injection2608.7.2Controlled LNAPL injection2628.7.3Accidental spill sites2628.7.4Leachate and waste disposal site characterization2648.8Summary265Terms for Glossary269Part III Earth Science Applications2719Ground Penetrating Radar in Aeolian Dune Sands273Charlie Bristow9.1Introduction2

28、749.2Sand Dunes2749.3Survey Design2779.3.1Line spacing2779.3.2Step size2779.3.3Orientation2789.3.4Survey direction2789.3.5Vertical resolution2789.4Topography2799.4.1Topographic surveys2809.4.2Topographic correction2819.4.3Apparent dip2819.5Imaging Sedimentary Structures and Dune Stratigraphy2819.6Ra

29、dar Facies2829.7Radar Stratigraphy and Bounding Surfaces2839.8Aeolian Bounding Surfaces2859.8.1Reactivation surfaces2859.8.2Superposition surfaces2859.8.3Interdune surfaces2869.9Dune Age and Migration2889.10Stratigraphic Analysis2889.11Ancient Aeolian Sandstones2909.12Three-Dimensional Images2909.13

30、Pedogenic Alteration and Early Diagenesis2919.13.1Evaporites2919.13.2Environmental noise2919.13.3Diffractions293Contentsix9.13.4The water table2939.13.5Multiples2939.14Conclusions294Acknowledgments29410 Coastal Environments299Ilya V.Buynevich,Harry M.Jol and Duncan M.FitzGerald10.1Introduction29910.

31、2Methodology30110.3Ground Penetrating Radar Strengths in Coastal Environments30310.4Ground Penetrating Radar Limitations in Coastal Environments30410.5Ground Penetrating Radar Studies in Coastal Environments30510.6Examples of Ground Penetrating Radar Images fromCoastal Environments30510.6.1Record of

32、 coastal progradation30610.6.2Signatures of coastal erosion30710.6.3Coastal Paleochannels30810.6.4Ground penetrating radar signal response to lithologicalanomalies in coastal dunes31010.6.5Deltas31210.6.6Reservoir characterization hydrocarbon and hydrogeology31310.7Summary314Acknowledgments31511Adva

33、nces in Fluvial Sedimentology using GPR323John Bridge11.1Introduction32311.2Scales of Fluvial Deposits and GPR Resolution32411.3Examples of Use of GPR in Fluvial Sedimentology32711.3.1South Esk,Scotland32711.3.2Calamus,Nebraska32911.3.3Brahmaputra(Jamuna),Bangladesh33111.3.4Niobrara,Nebraska33611.3.

34、5South Saskatchewan,Canada34011.3.6Sagavanirktok,northern Alaska34311.3.7Fraser and Squamish Rivers,Canada34911.3.8Pleistocene outwash deposits in Europe35011.3.9Mesozoic deposits of SW USA35311.4Concluding Discussion354Acknowledgments35512 Glaciers and Ice Sheets361Steven A.Arcone12.1Introduction36

35、112.2Antarctica36312.2.1Alpine glaciers:Dry valleys365xContents12.2.2Polar firn:West Antarctica36712.2.3Englacial stratigraphy:West Antarctica37112.2.4Ice shelf:McMurdo Sound37312.2.5Crevasses:Ross Ice Shelf37612.3Alaska37912.3.1Temperate valley glacier:Matanuska Glacier38012.3.2Temperate valley gla

36、cier:Gulkana Glacier38212.3.3Temperate firn:Bagley Ice Field,Alaska38412.3.4Temperate hydrology:Black Rapids Glacier38512.4Summary388Part IV Engineering and Societal Applications39313 NDT Transportation395Timo Saarenketo13.1Introduction39613.2GPR Hardware and Accessories39713.2.1General39713.2.2Air-

37、coupled systems39813.2.3Ground-coupled systems39813.2.4Antenna configurations39913.2.5Antenna and GPR system testing39913.2.6Accessory equipment40013.3Data Collection40113.3.1General40113.3.2Data collection setups and files40313.3.3Positioning40413.3.4Reference sampling40513.4Data Processing and Int

38、erpretation40513.4.1General40513.4.2GPR data preprocessing40613.4.3Air-coupled antenna data processing40713.4.4Ground-coupled data processing40813.4.5Determining dielectric values or signal velocities41013.4.6Interpretation automated vs.user controlled systems41113.4.7Interpretation of structures an

39、d other objects41113.5Integrated GPR Data Analysis with Other Road Survey Data41313.5.1General41313.5.2GPR and FWD41313.5.3Profilometer data41413.5.4GPS,digital video and photos41513.5.5Other data41613.6GPR Applications on Roads and Streets41613.6.1General41613.6.2Subgrade surveys,site investigation

40、s41613.6.3Unbound pavement structures41913.6.4Bound pavement structures and wearing courses420Contentsxi13.6.5GPR in QC/QA42313.6.6Special applications42513.7Bridges42513.7.1General42513.7.2Bridge deck surveys42613.7.3Other bridge applications42813.8Railways42913.8.1General42913.8.2Data collection f

41、rom railway structures43013.8.3Ballast surveys43113.8.4Subgrade surveys,site investigations43213.9Airfields43313.10Summary and Recommendations43514 Landmine and Unexploded Ordnance Detection and Classificationwith Ground Penetrating Radar445Alexander Yarovoy14.1Introduction44514.2Electromagnetic Ana

42、lysis44614.3System Design45514.4GPR Data Processing for Landmine/UXO Detection and Classification46214.5Fusion with Other Sensors46914.6Overall Performance of GPR as an UXO/Landmine Sensor47214.7Conclusion47315 GPR Archaeometry479Dean Goodman,Salvatore Piro,Yasushi Nishimura,Kent Schneider,Hiromichi

43、 Hongo,Noriaki Higashi,John Steinberg and Brian Damiata15.1Introduction47915.2Field Methods for Archaeological Acquisition48115.3Imaging Techniques for Archaeology48215.4Depth Determination48415.5Case Histories48515.5.1Case History No.1:The Forum Novum,Tiber Valley,Italy48615.5.2Case History No.2:Th

44、e Villa of Emperor Trajanus of Rome,Italy48815.5.3Case History No.3:Wroxeter Roman Town,England49415.5.4Case History No.4:Saitobaru Burial Mound No.100,Japan49515.5.5Case History No.5:Saitobaru Burial Mound No.111,Japan49815.5.6Case History No.6:Monks Mound,Cahokia,Illinois50115.5.7Case History No.7

45、:Jena Choctaw Tribal Cemetery,Louisiana50215.5.8Case History No.8:Glaumbaer Viking Age,Iceland505Acknowledgments507Index509xiiContentsPREFACEGround penetrating radar(GPR)is a rapidly growing field that has seen tremen-dous progress in the development of theory,technique,technology,and range ofapplic

46、ations over the past 1520 years.GPR has also become a valuable methodutilized by a variety of scientists,researchers,engineers,consultants,and universitystudents from many disciplines.The diversity of GPR applications includes avariety of areas such as the study of groundwater contamination,geotechn

47、icalengineering,sedimentology,glaciology,and archaeology.This breath of usagehas lead to GPRs rapid development and pre-eminence in geophysical consultingand geotechnical engineering,as well as inspiring new areas of interdisciplinaryresearch in academia and industry.The topic of GPR has gone from n

48、ot even beingmentioned in geophysical texts a little over a decade ago to being the focus ofhundreds of research papers and special issues of journals dedicated to the subject.The explosion of literature devoted to GPR theory,technology,and applicationshas led to this book which provides an overview

49、 and up-to-date synthesis of selectareas in this swiftly evolving field.The book also provides sufficient backgroundand case studies to allow both practitioners and newcomers to the area of GPR touse the volume as an accessible handbook and primary research reference.This publication begins with a p

50、art that focuses on the fundamental aspects ofGPR including electromagnetic principles of GPR(Annan),electrical and mag-netic properties of rocks,soils and fluids(Cassidy),systems and design(Koppenjan),antennas(Daniels),and data processing,modeling and analysis(Cassidy).The nextpart covers environme